Native Son

Native Son by Richard Wright is a unique novel--in relation to my research focus--because it weaves a criminal investigation, Depression era race relations, an ode to the Red scare, and Gothic elements together into one work that sheds great light on the psychological rationale of utterly poor African Americans. The first two parts of the novel, specifically, are of most interest to me since they contain a host of rich Gothic elements; the third part digresses into weighty courtroom rhetoric. However, Native Son, as the title suggests, centers on the actions of Bigger Thomas, who lives in the ghetto of Chicago during the thirties. Bigger, as the oldest male of a family without a patriarch, is expected to get a job in order to provide much needed income for his struggling family. However, its clear from the beginning that Bigger has his own plans in mind that usually involve personal gratification, rather than hard work. Bigger is frustrated with his ethnic identity, which leads to some dark behavior, on his part, throughout the novel. However, Bigger's main problem is that he does not know how to communicate with the white community. He knows that he is black; therefore, he thinks that whites will all view him as subordinate. He fails to understand the individuality of whites, especially the genuine kindness of the Daltons.

In terms of oppression, I think that in this novel its a two-way street: naturalistic forces certainly lead Bigger to suffocate Mary Dalton; however, Bigger also invites an excess of outcry from the public through his efforts to manipulate the investigation with the ransom note. Once Bigger realizes that he has been caught in Mary Dalton's bedroom, he knows that nothing good could come from the situation. He is black, and that is all the evidence that prosecutors need to charge him with rape. Therefore, when Mary begins to make noise, Bigger acts out of his own self-interest by smothering her with a pillow. He does not try to explain to Mrs. Dalton--who is blind--what has happened because Bigger knows that blacks and whites do not rationally work things out. However, through his actions, Bigger feels that he finally possesses his own sense of identity. No longer is he simply a young black man, instead he is the young black man that has committed the murder of Mary Dalton. Simply put: society regards him for something other than his race. 

In Native Son, the definition of minorities can also be expanded to included Communists and Jews. Indeed, this novel not only vividly describes the the discrimination that African Americans experience, but it also pays close attention to the negativity directed towards immigrants, who practice different customs and religions. Indeed, its interesting to ponder--especially in this novel-- whether African Americans or the Reds/Jews/Immigrants experience greater oppression from society? Although the Reds/Jews/Immigrants posed a undetectable visible threat to society, they could "pass." Conversely, African Americans were easy targets because of their skin color and detachment from white society.

In addition to the oppressive forces within the novel, there are also a myriad of Gothic symbols and elements that are also worth noting. Much of Bigger's psychological angst manifests in extremely dark behavior that transpires, primarily, in the first part of the work: he plans to rob a store, he masturbates in a theatre, he suffocates and decapitates Mary Dalton, and he mutilates the body of Bessie. Additionally, there are a variety of Gothic symbols throughout the novel as well: the rat that appears in the Thomas's apartment, Mrs. Dalton's white cat, the Dalton's furnace, the water tower that Bigger climbs, and Bigger's ransom note. The man-hunt of Bigger also struck me as particularly Gothic, and immediately reminded me of the man-hunt of the monster in Frankenstein. Indeed, Bigger is portrayed as a monster who satisfied his carnal desires and the disposed of his prey. The society that conditioned him to behave in this manner never took responsibility; however, they were quick to lame blame and sentence the perpetrator.     

Tobacco Road

Tobacco Road by Erskine Caldwell differs from the other novels that I have read so far; it represents the first quintessential Southern Gothic work of the summer. Indeed, with this novel, I have crossed into the nineteenth century, and, specifically, into the era of The Great Depression. First, let me take a second to marvel at Caldwell's writing. His clarity, honesty, and simplicity reminds me a lot of Carson McCullers; however, Caldwell's voice seems more mature; a bit more transportive. He captures the perpetual stagnation and aimless pursuits of poor whites in the south; a region that has yielded to industrialization and left the Lester family in the dust. The only other novel that I have read by Caldwell is Trouble in July, which presents an insightful look at race relations, but doesn't exactly develop in the Gothic tradition. However, Tobacco Road does.

The desolate and barren fields, obsolete tobacco route, and rickety sharecropping shack provides the decaying setting for the novel to unfold. It is interesting to note that the "house" the Lesters share burns down killing both the patriarch and matriarch of the family; an ode to "The Fall of the House of Usher." Additionally, Caldwell introduces physically grotesque characters who, in the same spirit of the bleak environment, represent haunting marginal sights for the audience: Sister Bessie's profound nostrils, Ellie Mae's cleft palate, and the Lester's collective emaciation.

The Lester family, specifically Jeeter Lester, seem to also be a tad insane. Jeeter's attachment to the agrarian lifestyle restrains him from transplanting his family to Augusta in order to find work in the mills. Instead, he clings to the notion that, one day, someone will provide him with the credit to purchase the bare necessities needed to turn a profit on his crop. This notion will never come to fruition because of the harsh economic times and because of the Lester's reputation. As a result of no income, his family is slowly starving to death, although they do receive an occasional cracker, sardine, and turnip. Their starvation causes them to loose control of their mental faculties; they become extremely cut-throat and savagely in their behavior. Thus, violence between the family members erupts in a survival of the fittest challenge where, usually, the women receive the leftover scraps from their male relatives. However, I must admit that the family brawl over the sack of turnips was ridiculously amusing.

Religious fanaticism also adds to the mild mental derangement of the Lesters. Jeeter is able to justify any vile deed—committed against family, friend, or foe— by simply repenting his actions to the Lord. He fears God, but when push comes to shove, he acts in his own best interest, not his family’s, and finds himself going through the motions: acknowledging his actions, repenting, and dreading the repercussions.

Tobacco Road, above all, provides fascinating accounts of oppression in regards to women. Caldwell portrays each of the Lester women as females who are perpetually trapped. They are virtually figure-heads: women who were bequeathed to suitors who desired to find a wife and start a family. This certainly proves true in Ada and Pearl’s case. Ada shows her marital dissatisfaction with Jeeter by refusing to speak to him for years. Jeeter expects her to bore his children, maintain the house, and follow his direction for the family. However, Ada remarks that she wants to go to Augusta, which illustrates her desire to escape the horror of Tobacco Road. It seems that Grandmother Lester shares the same story, and Pearl is destined to suffer the same fate. Jeeter is so broke that he is willing to exchange his thirteen-year-old daughter, Pearl, to Lov Bensey for food. Pearl is a child robbed of her innocence, and she shows her confusion by refusing to talk, acknowledge, or even look at her new husband. It is true that Lov shows more sympathy to Pearl than Jeeter ever did; however, he gradually becomes angered by Pearl’s lack of desire to consummate their marriage. Lov, the tactful problem-solver, eventually proposes tying her the bed in order to relieve his sexual frustration with her. Additionally, Grandmother Jeeter lives in a world in which she is nothing more than a neglected shadow. She is always in the background: living vicariously through her relatives; however, she is rarely acknowledged, and is eventually fatally hit by Sister Bessie’s car. Caldwell uses Grandmother Jeeter to illustrate how society disregards the elderly, although they have much to teach. However, on a broader note, Tobacco Road provides haunting portrayals of neglected women, who are, essentially, born into a stifling bondage, and fail to possess any means of escape.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain represents a novel that contains a variety of Gothic attributes, although it is not often classified as Southern Gothic. Although Twain seems to be most venerated as the nineteenth century's greatest humorist, I would argue that his ability to weave realism, satire, and local color together classifies him as an author who contributed to the evolution between the Gothic of Poe and the Grotesque of O'Connor.

Although I have read The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn many times, I encountered something different during this subsequent reading. Both the picaresque fashion in which the novel unfolds and the coming of age aspect of the work always leaves an impression upon me; however, I was struck, this time, by the overall darkness of the novel. Twain's well-incorporated humor masks a good deal of the grim events that ensue, and, in effect, make the novel palatable. However, I believe that when many people think of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn they envision Huck embarking on a innocent and imaginative boyhood journey. Many fail to acknowledge the weighty themes of the novel.

Most notably, Twain incorporates a profuse amount of violence into the novel. Indeed, he seems to toy with the notion that young boys have a fascination with violent high-spirited pursuits, which always proves true whenever Tom Sawyer appears in the novel, especially in the latter third. Huck also possesses these sentiments, but they are mild compared to the times when the ever-reliable catalyst, Tom Sawyer, shows up: during Huck's voyage on the Mississippi River, his time away from Mr. Sawyer, he undergoes the most growth in character and does little to initiate any violent events. Huck does exhibit his obsession for violence is other ways, though. Huck's narration strikes me as very Gothic because of his affinity for violent events, blood, and gore. Although the brutal events that unfold seem to captivate Huck at first, the same does not hold true for Huck when he finds himself in the midst of the cross-fire. His youth, at first, and his maturity, later in the novel, can both be attributed to these feelings. Indeed, Huck, through his initiation, comes to understand the horror of violence, instead of the fanciful boyhood scenarios that he once dreamt of prior to his journey.

Additionally, I think that its of interest to point out the number of violent episodes that appear throughout the novel: Huck's kidnapping by Pap, Huck's attempt to fakes his death, the steamboat robbery, Pap's death, the Sherperdson and Grangerford Feud, the Sherburn-Boggs Incident, and Tom Sawyer's gunshot injury. This is by no means a master list; it simply points out the fact that violence is virtually ubiquitous throughout the novel.

Another aspect of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn that carries in the same vein of the Southern Gothic genre is the oppression of African Americans. Jim, the ever-fateful and dutiful slave, is depicted by Twain with the utmost humanity, while remaining honest in his portrayal of Jim's character as a black male in antebellum America. Through the character of Jim, Twain records the African American experience during this times period. Jim, beyond anything else, aspires to keep his family in tact. When he fears that he will be sold without his family, he flees North to secure his title as a freedman, recieve a job, and buy his family from the bonds of slavery. Jim is denied much because of his skin color; however, he stands to loose contact with his own immediate kin. Likewise, Jim faces the preconceptions of his vile and immoral character based on his status as a black male. Twain illustrates this point through the relationship between Huck and Jim at various stages throughout the work: the trash scene, the raft scene, and the "you can't pray a lie" scene. Huck comes to view Jim not as a black man, but as his best friend. Due to the trials that they face on the Mississippi River, Huck witnesses Jim's faithful loyalty in the most precarious of situations; thus, Huck is able to cast aside the naturalistic forces that taught him to subordinate African Americans. Instead, Huck comes to view Jim as a endearing companion, a father-figure, and a true friend.

Collected Stories, Edgar Allan Poe

Although Poe writes in the Romantic Gothic tradition, it is quite difficult to discuss American Gothic literature without acknowledging Poe. Thus, I payed close attention to his short fiction in an effort to derive certain quintessential Gothic elements that manifest throughout his works. For the sake of the blog, I will only focus on two: "The Fall of the House of Usher" and "The Tell-Tale Heart." 

Throughout Poe's writing, the fundamental themes of madness, moral degradation, violence, and decay evolve in a pronounced fashion. The plots of his short stories are not, by any means, chimerical; instead, Poe's fiction focuses on marginal scenarios that are well within the realm of hypothetical probability. 

Poe's attention to the psychological torment of his characters represents a nexus between each of the aforementioned short stories. In "The Tell-Tale Heart", the narrator suffers the repercussions of his actions psychologically through the unavoidable braying of his victim's beating heart, which continually grows in magnitude. Likewise, in "The Fall of the House of Usher" Roderick's hypochondria, hyersynthesia, and existence inside the Usher estate have contributed to his mental regression. Additionally, as evident in the title of the work, his mental illness is also hereditary. Even with the emergence of the narrator--Roderick's young boyhood friend--Roderick's anxious demeanor cannot be quelled. The narrator's tenure at the Usher estate also causes the narrator to become frighteningly agitated, and unreliable in his narration, illustrating the fact that both both the Usher estate and Roderick's blood-line have detrimental psychological effects on Roderick. 

Throughout the short stories, violence also represents another Gothic theme that is well-represented in Poe's fiction. In "The Tell-Tale Heart", the narrator chops up his victim's body and hides it under the boards of the floor. In "The Fall of the House of Usher" Madeline reappears, post-burial, in a trace-like state, and kills Roderick by falling upon him. The theme of death appears many times throughout Poe's Gothic works in varying forms: premeditated, crimes of passion, and purely random.  

The oppression of women also occurs quite often in Poe's works. As subordinates, who were bound to Victorian societal ideals, the desires and necessities of women were virtually ignored. Poe reinforces this point throughout his short stories through his inclusion of helpless young women who face various forms of strife. Madeline Usher is a prime example of such. Madeline suffers not only from mental illness, but also from catalepsy. When Roderick finds her in a catatonic state, he immediately makes arrangements for her to be buried in the family vault; he believes that she is dead. A basic medical examination would confirm that Madeline is in a catatonic state; however, his actions deem her as a disposable accessory. She appears dead; therefore, she must be dead. This attitude, typically, illustrates the attention that women received as a whole, especially during this time. 

Although most Gothic elements in Southern Gothic fiction are veiled in comparison with the Gothic tradition of Poe, many interesting parallels can be made between the two different Gothic styles.